It’s been said that there are three signs of the coming of age of humanity.
- transmutation of the elements - a scientific break through were every element can be made to acquire the density, form, and substance of each and every other element
- one universal language and script will be chosen this will be the cause of unity, and the greatest instrument for promoting harmony and civilisation.
- kingship, no one will accept to bear the weight of kingship. Kingship will remain with none willing to bear alone its weight. This will be a sign of wisdom among mankind.
The hunger for gold goes way back. Tombs have been discovered in 1973 along the lower Danube valley in Bulgaria which turned out to be the largest and most ancient assemblage of gold artefacts in human history.
Dated from the 5th Millennium (4560-4450 BC) there were 3000 gold pieces among 62 grave sites. Obviously, mankind has long had a yearning for gold. There is something about this shiny metal that retains its exciting golden glow despite burial, time or even being submerged at sea. There are reasons so many cultures around the world used gold as their form of money.
Aristotle (384–322 BC) (who knew a lot!) defined the characteristics of a good form of money: He reckoned it should have four characteristics.
- It must be durable. Money must stand the test of time and the elements. It must not fade, corrode, or change through time.
- It must be portable. Money hold a high amount of 'worth' relative to its weight and size.
- It must be divisible. Money should be relatively easy to separate and re-combine without affecting its fundamental characteristics.
- It must have intrinsic value
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| Obviously gold satisfies all these important criterion. |
Such was the desire for this metal that from the Bronze age there has been the practice of alchemy - a quest to transmute base metal like lead into gold. Indeed in the third century BC Greek and Jewish scholars were able to study ancient scripts on alchemy in the great library of Alexandria. Although most of these alchemists were charlatans who claimed falsely the ability to transform base metal in to gold, many were actually also wonderful chemists and scientists including Robert Boyle, Paracelsus and Isaac Newton. Tradition said that the transformation could be carried out by the use of the Philosopher’s stone, a dense red waxy substance that, it was thought, enabled transmutation of lead to gold.
In fact so worried did people become about alchemy, laws were routinely passed banning it.
Pope John XII issued a papal bill against counterfeiting currency by means of alchemy in 1217. King Henry in 1403 banned alchemy in England. Warnings about the Philosopher’s stone are found in the Canterbury Tales, published in 1478 (“any man may come upon that stone, I say, as for the best, let it alone”).
Hunger for gold was pretty universal but can have dire consequences. In 1532 when the Spanish arrived in Peru, the local Incas thought they were Gods and offered them gold as gifts. The Incas referred to gold as the “sweat of the sun”. There is an account of the response such gifts had on the Spanish invaders from an Inca account.
“They picked up the gold and fingered it like monkeys; they seemed to be transported by joy, as if their hearts were illumined and made new. The truth is that they longed and lusted for gold. Their bodies swelled with greed and their hunger was ravenous, they hungered like pigs for that gold.”
The Spanish Conquistador Franciso Pizarro captured the Inca leader Atahual and demanded a ransom of a roomful of gold for his release. Despite gold flowing in huge amounts Pizarro reneged on the deal and put Atahual to death anyway. The exquisite priceless golden artefacts were melted down into bars to be sent back to Spain. In addition, within a few decades of the Spanish arrival, thanks in large part to the diseases they brought, the 16 million population of Peru was reduced by 93%. The Spanish desire and hunger for gold had disastrous consequences for the native population of South America.
Perhaps the Philosopher’s stone was really Cinnabar, mercury II sulphide which was used in gold processing. It certainly had the right colour.
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| Cinnabar, mercury II sulphide |
Mercury reacted with the gold in rocks to form a mercury-gold amalgam which was then heated, vaporising the mercury to obtain the gold. It certainly did not transmute the base element into gold but its ability to extract gold from ore made it very popular and must have been an impressive sight. Unfortunately, the fumes of the mercury were highly toxic and caused shaking, loss of sense and finally death to those exposed. Being sent to a gold mine was a dangerous occupation as a slave and their lives were all too short.
The desire for gold has long afflicted governments as well as individuals. In 1933, the president of the US, Franklin Roosevelt, outlawed the private ownership of gold coins, gold bullion and gold certificates of American citizens forcing them to sell all that they had to the Federal Reserve. Those who did not sell their gold would receive a penalty of $10,000 and/or 5 to 10 years in prison. The Federal reserve bought the gold for $20.67 per ounce and their reserves went from $4 billion to $12 billion as a result of the initiative. The price of the gold also surged to $35 per ounce creating an instant profit for the government. Fort Knox holds 2.3% of all the gold ever refined throughout human history.
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| Fort Knox |
Our hunger for gold is perhaps most clearly highlighted by the scale of one of the largest gold mines in the world.
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| The Grasberg Gold Mine in Indonesia |
Back to the seemingly ridiculous hunt for the philosopher’s stone and achieving the mythical goal of transforming base metals into gold. The problem is that every element has a certain number of protons defining it as Carbon, lead, Mercury etc. Each element’s atom contains a set number of protons (positively charged) in its nucleus and an equal number of electrons (negatively charged) surround it. For example, gold has 79 protons, copper has 29 protons, mercury has 80 protons and lead has 82 protons. So normal chemical reactions which involve only the interaction of outer electrons in various bonding arrangements with other elements were never going to be capable of transmuting one element into another. The nucleus despite the heating, mixing, burning, boiling strategies, reactions with other chemicals was never going to change the number of its protons. That essential essence which defined the element, its very heart and soul, the nucleus would remain unaltered despite centuries of the best minds throwing themselves into the task. For years we have, in fact, sniggered at these charlatans, the alchemists, and felt a vague embarrassment that such famous names as Isaac Newton or indeed Thomas Aquinas, could have wasted their considerable talents at such a dead end task.
The truth is far more startling. Modern science has demonstrated the existence of radioactive substances. These unstable substances are continually irradiating their surroundings with radiation in various forms of alpha particles, B-particles and gamma rays. Those alpha particles are like charged chunks of the nucleus being thrown out. The B- particles are fast moving electrons which come from deep inside the nucleus not from the outer shell electrons and the gamma rays are high energy beams of electromagnetic radiation (light, X rays, radio waves are all part of the electromagnetic spectrum but the gamma rays are the most powerful and carry the most energy). So these elements automatically transmute.
You find them naturally in the earth’s crust. Long-lived radioactive elements such as uranium, thorium and potassium and any of their decay products, such as radium and radon are examples. If you live in an area of granite you will be exposed to higher levels of radon, a radioactive gaseous element. Some of these elements transmute slower than others. In fact some have what we call half-lives (the time it take for half of the initial quantity to transform into a new element) of a tiny fraction of a second to others like Tellurium-128 (128Te) with a half-life estimated at 7.7 x 1024 years. This is much more than a billion times longer than the current estimated age of the universe. So by losing parts of their nucleus these can transform into other elements which are lighter than the original element.
The one we are most probably aware of is uranium because it is used a fuel in many nuclear fission reactors. Uranium 235 has a half live of 703.8 million years but by firing neutrons at an atom we can trigger a fission of the atom which divides into two other radioactive particles Krypton and Barium which releases more neutrons which triggers more fission of uranium 235. This run away process can be controlled by having water or graphite to soak up excess numbers of neutrons and keep things running so that the amounts of energy produced can be used to produce electricity in a sustained controlled chain reaction. We discovered that a change in the nucleus can be triggered by firing neutrons at elements and blasting apart the original element.
This transmutation is happening not only in our nuclear reactors. It has been estimated that 90% of the heat of the Earth’s interior is fuelled by decaying radioactive isotopes like Potassium 40, Uranium 238, Uranium 232 and Thorium 232 within the mantle of the earth. The world is obviously weirder than we can imagine!
But back to the creation of gold from base metals. Yes, It is indeed possible—all you need is a particle accelerator, a vast supply of energy and you can make gold. More than 30 years ago nuclear scientists at the Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory (LBNL) in California succeeded in producing very small amounts of gold from bismuth, a metallic element adjacent to lead on the periodic table. After mockery of those alchemists down through our turbulent history we can now announce that base metal can be turned into gold!
The group used carbon and neon nuclei at incredible speeds and slammed them into foils of bismuth. When they examined the results they found some atoms of Bi originally with 83 protons had lost four protons and become Gold with 79 protons. In March of 1981 the Physical Review C journal published their exciting results. However, the amount produced was so small and the expenditure of energy to achieve it excessive. Lest this seems churlish after achieving the long sought for conversion of base metal into gold, let’s put it in financial terms in the Scientific American journal’s words on January 31, 2014.
“Glenn Seaborg, who shared the 1951 Nobel Prize in Chemistry for his work with heavy elements and who died in 1999, was the senior author on the resulting study. “It would cost more than one quadrillion dollars per ounce to produce gold by this experiment," Seaborg told the Associated Press that year. The going rate for an ounce of gold at the time? About $560.”
Note: one quadrillion dollars = 1,000,000,000,000,000 dollars
So instead of getting closer to philosopher's stone we seem to have taken one big step forward and an even bigger one back. We can now make gold out of base metal but it will cost much more to make than it is worth. Disappointing I know, but science is getting closer than we think to an even more exciting goal that could change all that.
The goal of nuclear fusion reactors is to try and bring together nuclei not blast a nucleus apart. That releases huge amounts of energy and would create no radioactive waste as a by product unlike nuclear fission. In fact, a couple of buckets of sea water a day would supply the world’s energy needs if nuclear fusion is achieved. The interior of our sun regularly achieves fusion of the lighter atoms like hydrogen atoms into helium. Heavier metals like gold are only produced when a massive star reaches the end of its life in a supernova - the largest explosion that can take place in space. In one way that is positive, nature has proven it possible but the conditions under which it happens is pretty extreme. In order to turn copper into gold fission will simply not do. Gold has 79 protons but copper has only 29 protons. For that transmutation to take place nuclear fusion is necessary. So, if we can get fusion reactors to work we would be able to provide fuel for all the world’s needs and make as much gold as we like. Mind you, if we we crack that fusion target and choose to use the energy to make gold it will probably reduce the value of gold itself. After all, It is the rareness of an element that creates its value.
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| the Wendelstein 7-X (W7X) stellarator |
We are tip toeing closer to that goal of a working nuclear fusion reactor. "Scientists at the Max Planck Institute in Germany have successfully conducted a revolutionary nuclear fusion experiment. Using their experimental reactor, the Wendelstein 7-X (W7X) stellarator, they have managed to sustain a hydrogen plasma – a key step on the path to creating workable nuclear fusion. " This was achieved earlier this year and another contender in Southern France (involving 35 nations) using a different approach is the ITER Tokamak which runs at temperatures 10 times that found in the core of the sun. The technology is advancing and it is hoped a fusion reactor will become the next big break through in energy production. It is strangely comforting that being able to unite elements rather than divide them could bring a healthier and safer world. It hints that unity among nations could likewise usher in a real transmutation of our global society even more elusive than turning copper into gold.
